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During a state visit, the President, through the Ambassador to Country Helios, signs a bilateral Economic Cooperation and Technology Transfer Protocol on behalf of the Republic. The protocol is framed as an executive-diplomacy instrument and includes a clause stating that Senate action is not required for its validity. The Senate has not acted on the protocol. Helios begins to implement the protocol, including tariff concessions and joint research funding. (a) Identify the controlling rule governing whether the signed instrument binds the Republic without Senate ratification. (b) Distinguish between actual authority, apparent authority, and ratification, and apply them to the ambassador's act in this fact pattern. (c) If Helios relies on the signed instrument as binding, what is the Philippines' liability and what remedies exist once the Senate does not ratify the protocol?