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From 2010 to 2020, a coalition of states publicly asserts that targeted sanctions against political leaders for gross human rights abuses abroad constitute a binding rule of customary international law, accompanied by published guidelines, annual tallies of sanctions, and joint training programs. The Philippines has neither joined the coalition nor publicly objected. In 2025, a Philippine court handling a case involving extraterritorial sanctions contemplates applying this practice as customary international law. (a) Identify the central doctrine at issue and its two elemental requirements. (b) Explain the role of opinio juris and general practice, and the effect of a persistent objector. (c) Apply the facts: does the described practice suffice to create a binding customary international norm on the Philippines? If not, what factors would make it binding? Suppose the Philippines, in 2027, begins to adopt targeted sanctions; does this retroactively affect the status of the norm?